Category: MBA Dissertations

Tourist motivation refers to the factors that influence travel related decisions. Dann (1981) refers the motive to travel as a response of a tourist to what is lacking yet desired. According to Moutinho (2001), tourist’s vacation motivation is determined by social factors and is based on tourist expectations. Dicher (1972) states tourists can be seen as searchers, motivated by desire to discover oneself and psychological mobility, (cited in Moutinho, 2001). Motivations are distinguished into either general or specific. General motivations imply that people travel for many reasons, of which people are often not fully aware of them. Specific travel motivators are related to images on personal experience, knowledge, advice from friends, information from the mass-media, advertisements, and travel intermediaries, cost, time available, age, family obligations and so forth.

Dr. Abraham H. Maslow introduced an article “A theory of human motivation” in 1943; He later expanded the theory in his book named “Toward a psychology of being”. His article is more famous by “Maslow’s hierarchy of needs”. He wrote this article to explain that human motivation is based on the needs which he called it as “deficiency needs”. He gave the study of human behaviour a new face. He was influenced by his family life and his own experiences with people, he created his own ideas to understand human mind. Based on this motivation theory managers and leaders are finding it easy to understand and motivate their employees and are able to manage work force management.

According to Maslow’s motivation theory, unsatisfied needs are the major encouraging factor, before fulfilling higher needs there are some lower factors which has to be satisfied first. According to Maslow before a person act selflessly he should satisfy the general types of needs that are physiological, survival, safety, love and esteem needs, if these basic needs are satisfied that means we are moving towards growth and self-actualization.

In his theory of motivation he is making the leadership management understand that the basic needs of the employee has to be satisfy first before moving up to the high level of motivating factors like esteem and self-actualization. He has described that before moving up to the upper factors of motivation one has to satisfy the basic needs like (physiological needs, safety needs, social needs, esteem needs, and self-actualization) and has explained it in is main article called “Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs”, which is also called the “Maslow’s Needs Pyramid” or “Maslow’s Needs Triangle” which is explained in the below diagram.

Josiam et al; (1998). Makes a further distinction in motivation, that of between push and pull factors. Push factors are more general and induce the need to travel, whereas pull factors are destination-specific attributes that can determine the destination choice. The destination’s pull factors should reflect the tourist’s needs and preferences in order to be selected. However, it should have additional attributes that will differentiate it from other competing destinations (Josiam et al, 1998). 

In this chapter we have discussed many models of tourist behaviour; investigator cannot discover any appropriate model to utilize as a foundation for study on the procure activities of tourism. A general assessment of the theories would, as a result, be furnished to endeavour to set up decisive factor for a theory, which could be utilized as a foundation for study on the buying activities of tourists.

There have been some theories of tourism generally recognized during the 1960s and 1970s. Although conditions were not appropriate default within the traditional emerging tourist decision-making as well as theories, as amended, can generally outline a variety of the blame can be classified in conditions of the nominations from the tourists reasonable decision-making creation; and simplify the process of decision-making practice  on the feature tour registered in the decision-making theories, as well as the limits of constructive ideas and thus to offer theories of decision-making tourist. Will be provided with a conversation of this rejection, in an attempt to form a critical factor to the theory of the occasion.Initially,

Erasmus et al. (2001: 83) disapproves of cogent tourist decision-making, since tourists do not experience the widespread decision-making practice while creating an unintentional buy. It may have shown improved if the theory might have distinguished among low as well as lofty participation decision-making.

Erasmus et al (2001: 83) criticized the word “logical” in tourist decision-making, as the tourist utilizes a perception knowledge practice, which engages setting up as well as setting objectives, and an expressive practice with more non-figurative activities. Logical tourist activities are also constricted to believe.

Erasmus (2001) sustained this disagreement through highlighting so as to tourists acquire as well as execute an assortment of tourist’s decision-making plans, on the basis of schemes, destination, environments as well as earlier know-how.

Secondly, the decision-making practice cannot be comprehensive. An end user would worth a result more, if the result is seen as being significant. It cannot be observed as a model that all purchasing activities would be consideration cautiously. It was too disagree that theories represent tourist’s approaches as a consequence of the decision-making practice as well as not as a constituent, which survived earlier to the decision-making practice. Erasmus disagreed that the simplification of the decision-making practice might effect in a prejudiced outlook from the commencement.

Thirdly, the theories as well did not create stipulation for the reality that some phases might happen simultaneously as well as not in a chronological mode. Erasmus assumes that, if the phases taken place concurrently, an additional equivalent strategy has to be utilized. The suggestion was too made that additional investigate has to be accomplished in the expansion of equivalent tourist decision theories.

Ultimately, tourists would not in the entire conditions have adequate details to create a knowledgeable judgment. In some circumstances, they have to create judgments devoid of the entire the detail. Erasmus maintains that tourists might after that ensures decision short paths. Tourists might “stake” scheme substitutes, as nevertheless they were manipulative numerical potentials depended on expected-weighted upshots of chances, therefore representation the exercise of a reward option practice. Tourists are inclined to choose alternatives with the fewest probable failure. Erasmus et al. (2001: 83) criticized that tourists as well utilize diverse decision-making planning’s in diverse circumstances. Conventional tourist decision-making theories do not create stipulation for this.

After all these arguments researcher found out some features for consumer behaviour on tourism as follow:

• distinguish among low as well as high participation decision-making;
• dependent on logical as well as expressive practices;
• Creates stipulation for thoughts to impact the decision-making practice;
• recognizes that various phases might happen at the same time; recognizes that tourists will utilize diverse planning’s in decision-making in diverse circumstances;
• Distinguish among significant as well as less significant schemes.

The following principles could as well be originated from the disapproval of definite tourist theories:

• The Anderson’s theory considered tourists as computers with input-output practices (Walters, 154: 73). A more practical tourist theory will be one, which recognized the communication among the tourists as well as the organizations.
• The Nicosia theory had no apparent description of the communication among diverse variables. The theory did not explain repeat buying manners. It was recognized that an excellent tourist activities theory has to contain comprehensible description of the communication among diverse variables (Du plessis et el., (1990: 21). The theory has to contain comprehensible description of repeat buying activities. If the tourist wishes to opt for additional schemes or destination, the tourist theory should be capable to integrate it.
• The Howard-Sheth theory was as well multifaceted to exercise in daily circumstances (Du plessis et el., (1990: 24). So as to implement to diverse study circumstances, a theory has to be realistic. In the Howard-Sheth Model there is no connection among the aspects at the starting of the practice as well as the action when the tourist purchases the ticket to travel India. A theory has to point to the contact among these 2 actions, so as to be a adequate theory as well as to sufficiently describe tourist actions.
• The conversation on previous tourist actions theories has emphasized the inadequacies of the theories. Because of these inadequacies, the theories are insufficient in focusing to the intention of this study.

An additional modern theory concerning tourist actions as well as tourist decision-making practices is the Engel, Blackwell, and Miniard theory. In the hunt for an appropriate theory to structure the foundation for study on the consumer  behaviour on tourism in India, the investigator given comprehensive explanation about Engel, Blackwell, and Miniard theory, to set up whether the theory would please the principle for a pragmatic as well as realistic theory.

An additional encircling approach to the understanding of customer satisfaction and dissatisfaction could be seen in Sirgy’s assessment congruity theories of buyer actions. Sirgy describes the speculative condition linked with Customer satisfaction and dissatisfaction in words of inconsistency among professed as well as theory upshot phases.  As said by his hypothesis, pleasure is a task of assessment harmony, which is a perception corresponding practice in which an insight is relatively to remind concept perception for the reason of assessing an incentive entity or deed.

The consequence of the perception practice is assumed to create any a inspirational otherwise an expressive condition. Customer satisfaction and dissatisfaction is observed as an expressive conditions as it punctual the buyer to assess substitute guiding principle to decrease an obtainable displeasure condition as well as to get prospect pleasure condition.  Additional, customer satisfaction and dissatisfaction is observed as a task of 1 or additional harmonies among cognitive as well as suggested references conditions.

Issue identification is the task of a tracking inconsistency among the valence stage of the professed presentation of a service as well as the valence stage of a reference. The unconstructive strangeness state (a condition of pessimistic action insight as well as optimistic reference condition) is theorized to create the subsequent uppermost displeasure otherwise dilemma identification, tracked through “pessimistic harmony” (a condition of pessimistic presentation insight as well as pessimistic recital anticipation), “optimistic harmony” (a condition of optimistic recital insight as well as optimistic anticipation) furthermore “optimistic disharmony” (a condition of optimistic recital insight as well as pessimistic recital anticipation), correspondingly.

(Joseph Sirgy, 1982) suggested that goods concepts have to be categorized as being “serviceable” as well as “emblematic.” The serviceable concepts of an item contain the material advantages linked with the item, while the emblematic concepts indicate to the stereotypic behaviour concepts buyers have of a definite item frequently stated in words of the classic consumer icon.

(Joseph Sirgy, 1982) stated that customer satisfaction and dissatisfaction is not merely an assessment task of the buyer’s anticipation as well as recital appraisal, other than it is as well an assessment task of the buyer’s self-concept as well as goods picture harmony.  Specifically, the buyer’s self-concept has to be implicit with the intention of accurately comprehend the person’s pleasure or displeasure. Self-image, distinct as “the entirety of the person’s belief as well as approaches containing orientation to him as and entity,” has been theory from a multi-dimensional viewpoint.

The delight phase would be the smaller as the buy of the goods hand out no task to the upholding of whichever the self-respect or self-reliability reasons. Depending on the evaluation of prose on customer satisfaction and dissatisfaction as concerned to the assessment harmony theory’s as well as self-image, a rational exclamation could be haggard with regards to customer satisfaction and dissatisfaction in sightseeing as associated to the responsibility of the sightseer’s insight of objective pictures.

That is, customer satisfaction and dissatisfaction in sightseeing is a job of mutually (1) the assessment harmony of a sightseer’s anticipation of location as well as their professed result of the tourist spot knowledge; as well as (2) the assessment correspondence of a sightseer self-concept as well as their insight of the tourist spot’s cost-significant representation.

Such as, the word “real identity” indicates to how an individual understand identity of an individual’s, as well as “theory identity” indicates to how an individual offers one’s identity to somebody. The self-identity/goods likeness congruity theory in real meaning explains the result of the perceptive identical procedure among cost-effective features of a specified item as well as the buyer self-image on buyer judgments for instance item fondness, buying purposes, buying actions, item pleasure/displeasure, as well as item faithfulness.

The hypothesis describes the consequence of self-concept resemblance on buyer attitude during the intercede influences of 2 self-image purposes: self-respect as well as self-reliance. As per the self-concept or item-concept resemblance theory, a buyer’s definite cost-overloaded self-concept faith communicates with a matching cost- overloaded item-concept insight in words of the classic consumer concept in an item buy.

The consequence of such a communication happens in the outline of the subsequent 4 resemblance circumstances.

First, a “optimistic self-concept congruity,” happens as soon as there subsists a condition of optimistic self-harmony (a short inconsistency among one’s definite self-identity as well as the item identity) as well as a condition of optimistic theory.  Specifically, an item icon suits up with one’s real self-identity and individual’s theory self-identity. In that condition will consequence in greater buyer pleasure for the reason that, through buying otherwise recognizing them with this item, the buyer will arrive at an expressive condition that augments individual self-reliance drive as well as strengthen their self-esteem drive.

Second, a “optimistic self-identity inappropriateness“ situation happens while there subsists a condition of pessimistic self-appropriateness (a lofty inconsistency among one’s definite self-identity as well as the item identity), however a condition of optimistic theory self-matching (short inconsistency among definite self-identity as well as the item identity). In this circumstance the person may be provoked to buy the item other than person pleasure intensity will be reasonable.  This happens for the reason that, when the buy will augment one’s self-admiration purpose, the self-admiration purpose will divergence among individual self-reliability object.

Third, a “pessimistic self-identity inappropriateness“ situation is the contradictory of the “optimistic self-identity inappropriateness” situation. Specifically, there is a condition of optimistic self-appropriateness (short inconsistency among one’s real self-identity as well as the item identity,) other than a position of pessimistic theory self-appropriate (greater inconsistency among one’s theory self-identity as well as the item identity). The circumstances once more will outcome in a reasonable pleasure point for the reason that the person’s self-reliability intentions will divergence among individuals self-respect drive. 

Lastly, “pessimistic self-identity appropriateness” happens while there subsist a pessimistic self-appropriateness (greater difference among one’s genuine self-identity as well as the item identity,) and pessimistic theory appropriateness (greater inconsistency among individual theory self-identity as well as the item identity.) The pleasure altitude will be the less for the reason that the buy of the item hand out no task to the upholding of any the self-motivation otherwise self-reliability drives.

Theory of self-consistency as well as travel pertheoryance is represented in the theory position to diverse factors of the spot as well as its environment is associated to the location tourist representation.  The location tourist identity is after that assessed in radiance of precise proportions of the traveller’s self-image to decide the amount of self-consistency which is methodically associated to tour pertheoryance. 

The decision making process consists of a sequence of five steps as illustrated below. It should be noted that each stage in the decision making process is not isolated but rather blends backwards into the preceding step and forwards into the subsequent step. Thus, the act of making a purchase is only a step within a process which actually began several processes before the final purchase is made.

Although consumers follow the decision-making steps when making some purchases, it must be noted however that this rational process does not accurately portray many purchase decisions, as consumers do not undertake this elaborate sequence every time they make a purchase. There are times when purchase decisions are made without prior planning, such as the impulsive purchase of chocolates at checkout whilst waiting to pay for groceries. 

Consumers do not necessarily follow the standard sequence of events and they could revert to any of the steps before making a final decision. 

In order to gain an understanding of the way of the way consumers make purchase decisions, a detailed understanding of the decision making process is required. The first step in the decision making process is the problem recognition step.

According to Schiffman and Kanuk, information from marketing and non-marketing sources feeds into the information-processing section of the model. After passing through the memory, which serves as a filter, the information has its initial influence at the need recognition stage.

Search for external information will be activated if additional information is required or if the consumer experiences dissonance because of dissatisfaction with the chosen alternative. The information processing section of the model consists of the consumer’s exposure, attention, comprehension, acceptance and retention of incoming information. The last section of the model consists of individual and environmental influences that affect all stages of the decision process.

Engel et al explain that consumers apply evaluative criteria such as the standards and specifications of products when comparing alternative brands. Evaluative criteria are the desired outcomes from purchase and consumption, and are expressed in the form of preferred attributes. They are shaped and influenced by individual differences and environmental influences. They are thus product-specific manifestations of an individual’s motives, values, and attitudes. The authors argue that consumers apply a four-stage process: first, they determine the evaluative criteria to use; second they decide which alternatives to consider; third, they assess the performance of the considered alternatives; and fourth, they select and apply a decision rule to make a final choice.

According to Engel et al, the complexity of alternative evaluation will vary dramatically depending on the particular process consumers follow in their consumption decisions. When decision-making is habitual in nature, alternative evaluation will, usually, simply involve the consumer forming an intention to repurchase the same product as before. However, sometimes alternative evaluation can be quite complex. Consumers may employ a number of different evaluative criteria, and these criteria will usually vary in their relative importance. The evaluative criteria used will depend on a host of situational, product, and individual factors. 

The Engel, Blackwell, Miniard (EBM) consumer model provides an explanation of the consumer decision making model through a flow of sequential activities, that includes need recognition, search for information, information processing, pre-purchase alternative evaluation, purchase, consumption and divestment

Developed in 1969, the Howard-Sheth model is a descriptive model constructed by John Howard and later refined by Jagdish Sheth. There are four sections to the model. These are inputs, perceptual constructs, learning constructs and output. Business and environmental factors such as family, reference groups and social class are explained in the input section.

Thus stimulus ambiguity will occur when the stimulus makes contact with the consumer’s senses. This will lead to a search for more information which will be sorted by continual bias gained from attitudes, confidence, search and motives. It is possible for the new information to lead to changes in motives and intention, which could influence confidence and purchase.

The model sees buying behaviour as comprising of three stages. These are extended problem solving, limited problem solving and routinized response behaviour. Extended problem solving comes from a limited number of fixed criteria, which the consumer uses to evaluate product categories. In limited problem solving, there will be limited information search.

This is due to the fact that the consumer already has basic criteria which will be used when conducting an information search. In routinized problem solving mode, the consumer will evaluate products through the use of established criteria. There will be little or no search for additional information.

The Howard-Sheth model is regarded as contributing significantly to the study of consumer behaviour. Not only does it identify most of the variables that affect the consumer, but it also gives an explanation of the way in which these variables interact with each other. Furthermore, the model is regarded as the first model to recognize and explain the different types of consumer problems solving and information search behaviour. 

The weaknesses of the model lie in the fact that it makes no distinction between high and low involvement decision-making. Neither does it give a clear indication as to whether the needs of the consumer will have any effect on the decision-making process or not. Furthermore there is no differentiation between internal and external information search, as well as the type of situation which would use either.

Thus a consumer could purchase a premium food brand for the first time based on the fact that the brand was one used by their parents. In this situation, there won’t be either extended problem solving, or information search. This situation is characteristic of Howard and Sheth’s routinized behaviour. However, the behaviour is not routinized since the purchase is being made for the first time. Finally, there is discontinuity with some variables. They appear at start of the model but do not continue to the end of the model.

Developed in 1966, the Nicoscia model shows consumer behaviour as being represented as a series of decisions which follow each other. It is divided into four fields and assumes that neither the consumer nor the firm has had any previous experience directly related to a specific product or brand.

The first field covers the flow of message from its origin (the firm advertising the product) to the ultimate reception of the message by the consumer. The second field covers data search and comparative evaluation. The third field deals with the act of purchase and the fourth field deals with feedback which may or may not lead to repeat purchase. 

In field one the firm will promote an unfamiliar product to the consumer. This will lead to the consumer developing an attitude towards the product, after the product has been evaluated against the consumer’s predispositions. In the second field, motivation will be developed on completion of an evaluation of the product and information search. The search could be in the form of the consumer relating conscious and unconscious associations with the product or brand (internal search) or gathering information from family, work group and advertisements (external search). In field three, the consumer would purchase the product. However availability of the advertised brand could limit the purchase of the product. Finally, in field four if satisfied with the product, the consumer will memorise the result of the purchase circle in order to make repeat purchases.

The Nicosia model is a good example of computer stimulation techniques. It is also relatively complete, logical and understandable. It can also be useful for launching a new product. Despite its strong points, there are limitations to the model which may affect its effectiveness. These limitations include the fact that it oversimplifies the motivation and attitude formation processes which rarely happen in the logical and mechanistic way described by Nicosia

Also the Nicosia model is very restricting since it is based on advertising and product acceptance, where there is a lack of early experience of the product by both the seller and buyer. The model had a tendency to represent the search and evaluation process as ‘over-rational’ and it does not give a clear indication of the interaction between the variables. There is an assumption that attitudes, motivation and experience occur in the same sequence. This may not necessarily be so. The effects reference-groups have on consumer choice decision are not taken into consideration. Rather, there is a description of only the psychological factors involved in decision making. Finally, this model has never been completely or empirically tested, thus its predictive power is unknown

Developed in 1965, the Andreasen model was developed from recognition of the importance of information in the consumer decision making process. The model also emphasises the importance of consumer attitudes despite the fact that it did not take the importance of attitude into consideration with regards to repeat purchases. 

The model was developed from several ideas about attitude formation and change drawn from social psychology. The entire process from stimulus to outcome comprises an information–processing cycle which involves four stages: input stimuli, perception and filtration, disposition changes and various feasible outcomes.

Thus information about the product would be transmitted to the consumer through the five senses. It is possible for these messages to either be personal or impersonal. A filter will be formed with the consumer’s perception, while attitudes will function as a determining factor that will let information flow through. There are however different ways in which attitudes can be changed. Thus changing group affiliations would most likely lead to a consumer conforming to the new group norms.

The model takes cognisance of the fact that new information can have an effect on the consumer’s attitudes, beliefs and feelings. Consumer decisions are further affected by cultural values, personality experience and wants. It also takes cognisance of the environmental factors that affect consumers’ decision making processes.

In spite of these, the model has limitations which include the fact that the model does not give a clear indication of the interaction that exists between the consumer and the firm. There seem to be a one-way communication in the model. The decision making process explained only deals with new products. Furthermore, the model appears to give attitudes a lot of weight at the expense of other variables, which could have been included or developed further. The relationship between many of the variables is not properly specified. Finally, the model does not take special situations into account.

Some of the best known theories of consumer behaviour were developed in the 60s and 70s when there was limited theory on consumer behaviour. The short comings of the theories of human behaviour gave rise the more complex theories of consumer behaviour developed in the 60s. Unlike theories of human behaviour, consumer behaviour theories focused on describing and systemising the entire purchase process. This led to the early theories becoming guides which were used as the base for further research and study on the subject of consumer behaviour on tourism in India.

Prior to the 60s, consumer research was undertaken by marketers rather than academics. The first consumer decision making theory was developed by Howard in 1963. This was followed by the Anderson theory in 1965, Nicosia theory in 1966, Engel, Kollat & Blackwell theory in 1968, Howard –sheth theory in 1969, Hansen theory in 1972 and Markin-theorys of 1968/1974. The plethora of consumer decision making theories can be attributed to the fact that the research into consumer behaviour did not grow from a pure theoretical basis but rather from theories borrowed from other disciplines.

The discussion below will focus on the Anderson theory, the Nicosia theory, Howard – sheth theory, Engel, Blackwell, Miniard theory, Solomon theory, Theory of Travel- Buying behaviour Mathieson and Wall,

LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

Demographic characteristics including age, gender, occupation, income, education and number of people living in the household can all have an effect on the purchasing preferences choice of Indian holiday destinations. In order to determine the factors compelling consumers to choose a particular destination, attention will be focused on three main areas. These are (a) the decision making theory’s that serves as the foundation of the study and (c) what drives consumer choice, and (c) factors that influence choice drivers. Each of these areas will be reviewed in this chapter. 

Prior to introducing an overview of consumer behaviour will be given. This will be followed by discussing the major consumer behaviour models and the models will lead to an examination of consumer behaviour models, with emphasis being placed on definitions, purpose as well as value of these models.

Consumer behaviour can be explained as the research of an individuals, groups or institutions and these process they use to select, secure use and array of products, services, understandings or notions to fulfil the consumer needs in the public. Consumer behaviour is chronological process, which includes different activities and the process of outcome will influence the consumer in proper direction.